Biological matrix: Tested pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites (following cellular processes, pharmaceutical molecules are transformed) are dispersed throughout the organism. The molecules to be tested are thus located in various biological matrices, such as the blood, urine, cell tissues (e.g., skin), cerebrospinal fluid.

Biological systems: The human body is made up of several biological systems, each of them composed of organs. There is the nervous system, an assemblage of nerves, a brain and a spinal cord; the cardio-vascular system, composed of one heart and blood vessels; the urinary system, which comprises two kidneys, one bladder and urinary tracts; the respiratory system, made up of air passages and two lungs, etc. Each system is important for the maintenance of a biological equilibrium in the human body (homeostasis). A pathology or a disease gives rise to a disequilibrium.

Biological/ therapeutic target: Biological (or therapeutic) targets are membrane or cellular receptors (made of proteins) or genes, to which a molecule can be attached. Thus, when a molecule binds to a membrane receptor, a cascade of intracellular biochemical reactions take place, followed by a cellular reaction. We can also modify a gene’s expression (making it active or inactive), or change the activity of a protein or enzyme.

Biomarkers, or biological markers, come in various forms, depending on the needs of the research project. In the context of pharmaceutical R & D, they are generally defined as the measurable characteristics that indicate a “healthy” or “diseased” state, or a change resulting from medical treatment. An example of such markers is the blood analysis of certain biochemical compounds (concentration of particular proteins or enzymes). The early and more precise detection of diseases (pathologies) can help the pharmaceutical industry to develop better medicines.

Biopolymers: Biopolymers are long chains of monomers (basic units) derived from nature (e.g., by bacterial synthesis). They are entirely biodegradable substances which can be used as drug delivery systems. Being biodegradable, biopolymer capsules are capable of slowly releasing medicine as they break down.

Chromatography techniques: Chromatography is an analytical technique widely used for the separation, identification and dosage of chemical/ biochemical components in complex mixtures. Chromatography is a method in which mixture components separate as a result of the speeds at which they move through a stationary phase by a gaseous or liquid mobile phase. In chromatography, the stationary phase is one which remains in place, either in a column or on a flat surface. As for the mobile phase, a liquid or gas moves on or through the stationary phase, carrying the analyte with it (elution). Depending on the affinity of the analyte for one or other of the phases, the analyte is more or less delayed before emerging. At its exit, detectors are used (see spectrometry and spectrophotometry techniques) to analyze the eluted products.

Computational chemistry: Using simulation methods, researchers in computational chemistry can visualize a target in silico (by computer), in three dimensions. Using this information, they can conceive of therapeutic molecules which can interact with the biological target before actual chemical synthesis is undertaken.

Etiology: The study of causes of disease.

Gene: The gene is the basic unit of hereditary information, consisting of DNA, and involved in producing polypeptide chains or proteins. DNA is the basic genetic material, fundamentally the same in all living organisms and it consists of a very long molecule of double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA generally occurs in linear form and is part of the chromosome. However, in some viruses (retroviruses), it is ribonucleic acid (RNA) that is the biochemical molecule of genetic information.

Genome: The genome is the complete set of an organism’s genes. The human genome is composed of approximately 30,000 genes, distributed in 23 pairs of chromosomes. Furthermore, the human genome, like several others, includes a large amount of non-coding DNA, i.e., DNA not used for the synthesis of RNA or proteins.

Genomics: Emerging at the end of 2001, the genomics discipline identifies all the genes of a living organism and studies their functions. The discipline evolved in two phases. The first phase, known as structural genomics, consists in describing the arrangement of the genome, lists the inventory of genes and makes complete sequences of them. The second phase, which is more recent, looks at the functions of these genes and their interactions: this is the discipline of functional genomics. In medical research, these studies permit the discovery and description of genes involved in genetic illnesses, thereby facilitating the development of more efficient and precise therapeutic approaches

Immunochemical techniques: Immunochemistry techniques are based on antigen-antibody interactions, an antibody X being specific to an antigen X. Thus, any antigenic molecule (molecule attaching to an antibody) can be located in biological tissues or liquids using immunochemistry methods. For example, very weak concentrations of antigenic molecules can be measured in a liquid by a technique called ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). This method is uses an antibody linked to an enzyme, which changes a substrate into a new molecule, detected by a spectrophotometric method.

Lead molecule: Molecule (compound) that shows interesting therapeutic potential.

Pharmacodynamics: Pharmacodynamics studies the effects on an organism of a pharmaceutical compound and its metabolites (products derived from the impact of metabolic reactions on the molecule). It includes the study of uptake, movement, binding and interactions of agents at their tissue and cellular site.

Pharmacokinetics: Pharmacokinetics studies the mechanisms of absorption of a pharmaceutic compound, its distribution in the organism, its metabolism (i.e., modifications by the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, etc.), its storage (e.g., in adiposal or bone tissues) in an organism, and its excretion.

Proteomics is the study of protein structure and function in an organism. The complete set of proteins in a cell is known as its proteome. Proteomics seeks to understand how the structure and post-translational modifications (after ribosomal transcription, proteins may be modified by cleavages and/or the addition of sugars, lipids, etc.) allow them to do what they do, determine who or what they interact with, thereby contributing to life processes. This science also contributes to the discovery of new drugs by measuring their interactions with, and effects on, proteins involved in pathologies. At the beginning of 2001, a new body, the “Human Proteome Organization (HUPO)” was founded in order to coordinate international efforts and expertise in proteomics.
http://www.hupo.org

Regulatory bodies
Health Canada's Therapeutic Products Directorate is the Canadian federal authority that regulates pharmaceutical drugs and medical devices for human use. Prior to being granted market authorization, a manufacturer must present substantial scientific evidence of a product's safety, efficacy and quality, as required by the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations.
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpfb-dgpsa/tpd-dpt/aboutus_e.html

US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)
The Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) promotes and protects the health of Americans by assuring that all prescription and over-the-counter drugs are safe and effective. CDER evaluates all new drugs before they are sold, and serves as a consumer watchdog for the over 10,000 drugs on the market, to be sure that they continue to meet the highest standards. The center routinely monitors drug ads on TV, radio, and in print to ensure they are truthful and balanced. CDER also plays a critical role in providing health professionals and consumers with information to ensure that they use drugs in an appropriate and safe manner
http://www.fda.gov/opacom/factsheets/justthefacts/3cder.html

Spectrometry techniques: Spectrometric methods are based upon measurement of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and atoms or molecules of the analyte (substance to be tested), or upon the production of such radiation. Different analytical techniques include measurement of values such as the mass/ charge ratio (mass spectrometry), reaction speed, thermal conductivity, optical activity (optical spectrometry: see spectrophotometry techniques) and the refraction index (refractometry).

Spectrophotometry techniques: Spectrophotometric methods are widely used for the identification and dosage of innumerable inorganic and organic molecules. Ultraviolet, visible absorption spectroscopy is mainly used for quantitative analyses and is probably the most widely used of all methods in chemical and medical analysis. Infrared absorption spectroscopy is one of the most powerful tools used to determine the structure of inorganic and organic compounds. This method also allows for dosage, but is less often used for this purpose.

Transcription: Cellular process which copies a gene X, a tiny part of the genetic code (in DNA form), containing the information necessary for the synthesis of a protein X. This copy is a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is read by small cellular organites, the ribosomes. These construct the amino acids in accordance with the command given by the mRNA in order to form a protein: this process is called translation. Thus, transcription of DNA into mRNA and the translation that follows are the basic mechanisms by which cells ensure their growth, functions and metabolism.

X-Ray crystallography: X-Ray crystallography is a technique used to determine the structure of a crystallized protein, when the latter is exposed to X-rays. Advanced computer programs analyze the patterns of the X-rays emitted through crystals, creating a 3-dimensional image of the protein.

Lexicon by Lucie Brouillette, Biopop Inc.